Memory and using it in some way

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encoding
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first stage in memory system
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encoding
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the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a usable for
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storage
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second stage in memory system
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storage
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holding on to the information for some period of time in a process
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retrieval
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third step in memory system
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retrieval
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getting the information they know they have out of storage
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information-processing model
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focuses on the way information is handled, or processed, through three different systems of memory
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parallel-distributing model
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model of memory derived from work in the development of artificial intelligence
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parallel-distributing model
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sees memory as a simultaneous process; creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of mental networks stretched across the brain
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levels-of-processing model
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thinking about the meaning of something is a deeper level of processing and results in longer retention of the information
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sensory memory
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first stage of memory (information-processing model); info enters through the 5 senses
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iconic memory
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visual sensory memory
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echoic memory
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the brief memory of something a person has heard
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short-term memory (STM)
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second stage of memory (information-processing model); memories that are held for 30 seconds or more
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selective attention
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the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
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cocktail party effect
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when you're able to distinguish your name in a crowd
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working memory
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an active system that processes the information present in STM
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maintenance rehearsal
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repeating a piece of information over and over just long enough so you can write it down (or whatever)
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long-term memory (LTM)
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the system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently
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elaborative rehearsal
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a way of transferring information from STM to LTM by making it meaningful in some way
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implicit (nondeclarative) memory
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memories for skills that people know how to do (tying shoes, riding a bike)
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anterograde amnesia
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new long-term declarative memories cannot be formed
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explicit (declarative) memory
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memories for thing people can know; facts and information that make up knowledge
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semantic memory
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general knowledge that anyone has the ability to know and that is often learned in school or be reading
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episodic memory
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memories that represent episodes from our lives (graduation, first date, anniversaries)
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semantic network model
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assumes that the information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion with concepts that are related to each other stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related
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encoding specificity
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the tendency for memory of any kind of information to be improved if retrieval conditions are similar to the conditions under which the information was encoded (the best place to take a test is in the classroom that you learned the information in)
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state-dependent learning
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memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state (when arguing it is easier to remember the bad things about someone)
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recall
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memories are retrieved with few o no external cues (filling out personal fill-in-the-blank forms)
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recognition
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onvolves looking at or hearing information and matching it to what is already in memory (word searches or tests)
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serial position effect
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information at the beginning and the end of a list (such as a poem or song) tends to be remembered more easily and accurately
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primacy effect
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words at the very beginning of the list tend to be remembered better that those in the middle of the list
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recency effect
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the last word or two was just heard and is still in STM for easy retrieval, with no new words entering to push the most recent word out of memory
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automatic encoding
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many other kinds of LTMs seem to enter permanent storage with little or not effort
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flashbulb memories
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memories of highly emotional events can often seem vivid and detailed, as if the person's mid took a flash picture of the moment in time
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constructive processing
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memories are literally built from pieces stored away at encoding; each time a memory is retrieved, it may be altered or revised in some way to include new information, or details that were there at encoding may be left out of the new retrieval
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hindsight bias
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the tendency of people to falsely believe that they would have accurately predicted an outcome without having been told about it in advance
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misinformation effect
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when false memories are created by a person being exposed to information after the event; misleading information that can become part of the actual memory
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false memory syndrome
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the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis
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curve of forgetting
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the graph that clearly shows that forgetting happens quickly within the first hour after learning the lists and then tapers off gradually (Hermann Ebbinghaus)
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distributed practice
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spacing out study sessions will produce far better retrieval information
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massed practice
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the attempt to study a body of material all at once
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encoding failure
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the failure to process information into memory
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decay
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when memory fades into nothing
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memory trace
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some physical change in the brain which occurs when a memory is formed
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disuse
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when referring to LTM, decay theory is usually called ___; use it or lose it
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proactive interference
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the tendency for older or previously learned material to interfere with the learning of new material
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retroactive interference
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when newer information interferes with the retrieval of older information
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retrograde amnesia
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loss of memory from the point of injury backwards
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anterograde amnesia
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the loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward
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