Ultimate goal for performance success Essay Example
Ultimate goal for performance success Essay Example

Ultimate goal for performance success Essay Example

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  • Pages: 8 (2110 words)
  • Published: October 15, 2017
  • Type: Case Study
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Introduction

The quest for competitive advantage and optimized sporting performance drives the relentless pursuit of strategies to achieve success in public presentations. Individuals with a higher performance status have been observed to interpret anxiety symptoms as facilitative to impending performances, and this relationship has been supported by empirical evidence (Jones, Hanton, & Swain, 1994; Jones & Swain, 1995). One approach to promoting a more facilitative interpretation of anxiety is through the application of a combination of psychological skills (Hanton & Jones, 1999a, 1999b; Thomas, Maynard, & Hanton, 2007). Research highlights the importance of utilizing cognitive restructuring techniques such as goal-setting to elicit positive interpretations. However, there remains ongoing debate about which psychological skills, including those in multi-modal interventions, are responsible for producing the desired anxiety assessments (Fletcher & Hanton, 2002).

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Specifically, recent research has identified individual psychological achievements that promote positive competitive-anxiety responses (O'Brien, Mellalieu, & Hanton, 2009; Wadey & Hanton, 2007, 2008). However, the mechanisms underlying how and why athletes interpret their anxiety levels as positive are still uncertain. If athletes can learn to perceive anxiety in a more positive way, they are more likely to benefit from the resulting performance advantage. Anxiety, traditionally considered a negative factor for performance, is now recognized as a stimulus (Jones & Hanton, 1996). In response to this dual-anxiety response, Jones (1991) argued that the traditional measure of multidimensional anxiety, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990), only assessed anxiety intensity levels; (cited in Jones & Swain, 1995). In response to this critique, Jones and Swain (1992) developed a modified version of the CSAI-2 that included a directional scale.

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approach to measuring the strength and perception of anxiety symptoms, which were believed to indicate the presence of anxiety, was expanded. To explain differences in anxiety interpretation, Jones (1995) proposed a control model. According to this model, an athlete's interpretation of anxiety is influenced by their confidence in their ability to control their behavior and environment to achieve their goals. The model suggests that a more positive expectation of goal attainment is associated with perceived control and coping ability, resulting in a more beneficial interpretation of anxiety. This concept of control stemmed from Carver and Scheier's (1988) research, suggesting an athlete's interpretation is based on their belief in managing anxiety levels and meeting task demands. Many studies have relied on Jones' (1995) theoretical model, which links positive expectations of goal attainment with beneficial interpretations of anxiety (Jones & Hanton, 1999a; Jones & Hanton, 1996; Wadey & Hanton, 2008). Findings by Vealey et al. (1998) support components within Jones' (1995) model, indicating self-denial perception as the second most important source of confidence for athletes.

Extensive research and documentation have been conducted on the beginnings of assurance (for a review, see Bandura 1977, 1986, 1997; Vealey et al., 1998). The focus now is to identify the behaviors that most effectively contribute to enhancing self-confidence. Assurance holds great importance, especially in the realm of athletics, and it also serves as a distinguishing factor between elite and non-elite performers (Feltz, 1988). Previous studies have indicated that confidence acts as a protective barrier against excessive anxiety levels (Hanton, Mellalieu, & Hall, 2004). Findings reveal that athletes with high confidence levels interpret their experienced anxiety positively (Jones et al., 1994; Mellalieu, Hanton,

& Jones, 2003), which supports Jones' model from 1995.

According to qualitative research conducted by Hanton et Al. (2004), the evaluation of scheme usage focused on self-talk, thought control, and imagination. The study suggested that assurance resulted in a sense of control over athletes' performance. Additionally, assurance had a positive impact by overriding negative thoughts and promoting coping expectations, which was linked to an internal mechanism of reassurance. Hanton et Al. (2004) also found that higher levels of assurance were associated with increased effort and motivation, leading to a more facilitative perception. These findings support Eysenck and Calvo's (1992) processing efficiency theory (PET), which proposes that confidence prevents cognitive anxiety from impairing performance by promoting motivation, effort investment, and ultimately increasing levels of concentration.

According to Bandura (1977), engaging in a behavior increases confidence in one's ability to perform that behavior. It is reasonable to propose that engaging in effective self-control techniques may enhance athletes' perception of their ability to control. Additionally, perceived control seems to differentiate between facilitators and debilitators in response to anxiety symptoms, as found by Hanton and Connaughton (2002). The ability to self-regulate involves managing one's emotions, actions, and thoughts to achieve goals, especially when faced with challenges or disruptions to familiar actions (Karoly, 1993). Karoly (1993) defines self-regulation as "those internal and/or transactional processes that enable an individual to guide their intentional activities over time and in changing circumstances (contexts)" (p. 25).

According to Bandura (1991), goal-setting is a fundamental self-regulatory behavior. Bandura argues that setting goals helps individuals in their behaviors, perceptions, and emotions to achieve their desired performance standards. Essentially, goal-setting provides a benchmark for individuals to assess their current performance

and encourages self-evaluation and positive adaptive behavior. Gould (2006) also suggests that goals can enhance athletes' motivation, effort, concentration, and confidence. These subsequent psychological and emotional responses can be directed towards aligning current behavior with desired outcomes and improving performance. Upon reaching goals, individuals can define their command and personal capabilities in sport-specific skills and experience heightened awareness of success. Clearly, goals provide individuals with opportunities for satisfaction and can serve as a potential determinant of future confidence.

According to Zimmerman (1999), self-regulated scholars who consistently assign specific process and outcome goals and express high confidence levels are more likely to succeed. This can explain and strengthen the relationship that has been found between goal-setting and confidence, as achievement in performance is the greatest source of self-efficacy for athletes (Bandura, 1997). In addition, athletes with higher confidence levels have been shown to set more challenging goals and demonstrate greater commitment to achieving them (Bandura, 1991; Locke & Latham, 1990; Wood & Bandura, 1989). Bandura (1991) supports the role of confidence as an important component of self-regulation, and previous research in sports has also supported this idea (Kane et al., 1996; Williams et al., 2000).

Considering the relationships between self-denial, assurance, and anxiousness reading, taking into account the self-regulatory procedures involved in goal-setting can help clarify the potential underlying mechanisms of anxiety assessment. The goal-setting process is facilitated by self-monitoring, which is a sub-function of Bandura's self-regulation theory (1991). Self-monitoring involves observing and evaluating one's own performance and outcomes (Zimmerman, 2006), and has been positively linked to improved physical learning and performance (Martin & Ashnel, 1995; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1996). Self-monitoring prompts individuals to self-assess and recognize positive

patterns between effective psychological states and successful performance outcomes, thereby providing insight into oneself. This can guide behavioral change if performance was impaired or reinforce behavioral repetition if performance was enhanced. Consequently, self-monitoring allows for self-evaluation towards goal attainment, reflecting its self-diagnostic function. Previous research has demonstrated that self-monitoring, especially when positive, contributes to a sense of confidence (Bouchard-Bouchard, 1990; Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001; Martin & Anshel, 1995).

Furthermore, the ability of athletes to monitor themselves, both individually (Kim, 1999) and as a team (Kim & Cho, 1996), affects expectations for performance and the belief in control (as cited in Bechenke, 2002). Anxiety is most likely to arise from self-evaluative behaviors. Self-evaluation allows for the analysis of behavior and its outcomes and is a subsequent sub-function of self-monitoring. This allows athletes to determine whether to repeat the behavior if self-evaluation is positive or implement disciplinary changes to achieve future satisfaction if the evaluation is negative (Bandura, 1991).

The concept of self-belief in achieving goals has an impact on how individuals react to success or failure. Those who have greater confidence in themselves view failure as a motivation to keep striving. They then take actions to reduce the discrepancies by putting in more effort and adopting different strategies to increase the likelihood of achieving their goals (Bandura & Cervone, 1986). Additionally, confident individuals are more proactive in their responses to goal achievement. After mastering a goal, they set higher expectations for themselves by introducing new challenging goals, which helps them improve their performance (Bandura, 1991).

In addition, Carver and Scheier (1986, 1988, 1998) have studied how self-confidence affects self-regulatory behaviors. Their research shows that individuals with higher

coping confidence will respond positively to levels of anxiety when faced with obstacles in achieving their goals. They will show renewed effort and concentration toward their aspirations (as cited in Hanton et al. (2004)). Jones and Hanton (1996) examined symptoms of competitive anxiety in relation to expectations of achieving goals before a competition. The results showed that competitive swimmers who had positive expectations of goal attainment found their anxiety symptoms to be more helpful for performance compared to athletes who had negative or uncertain expectations. These findings are consistent with similar studies conducted by Hanton and Jones (1999a).

This paragraph supports Jones' (1995) control model and emphasizes the importance of positive responses to positive goal-expectancies. Higher levels of confidence and positive assessments of anxiety can influence these responses. Therefore, it is crucial to set appropriate goals in order to enhance athletes' expectations of achieving their goals and promote positive interpretations of anxiety. Bandura (1991) states that recognizing improvement in performance affects individuals' future behavior, encourages further goal-setting, and elicits evaluative responses. Goal-setting serves as a stimulus for other behavioral responses and plays a vital role in self-regulation. The overlapping effect between self-regulatory processes and confidence, especially in the goal-setting process, suggests that goal-setting may be the most reliable predictor of confidence compared to other self-regulatory processes; however, this remains uncertain. Evidence supports the role of goal-setting in promoting positive interpretations of anxiety according to Wadey and Hanton (2008) as well as O'Brien et al.

The 2009 article encourages the utilization of goal-setting interventions to promote a positive response to competitive anxiety. According to Wadey and Hanton (2008), factors such as confidence, effort, motivation, focus, and perceived control

may explain the positive anxiety response associated with goal-setting. However, the role of confidence as a mediator is still uncertain. While Jones' explanatory model (1995) and previous research support the notion that confidence and self-control perception play a role in assessing anxiety, they do not address which self-regulatory behaviors enable confidence to overcome disabling interpretations or why this relationship exists. The literature review identifies five crucial self-regulatory processes: goal-setting, regulatory-responses, self-monitoring, self-awareness, and self-talk. These processes were measured using the Self Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (SRSQ), making it the first study to use this questionnaire for holistic assessment and differentiation between these key processes. Although extensive research has been conducted on the origins of confidence, how different self-regulatory processes contribute to confidence remains unexplored. The questionnaire employed in this study aims to identify specific sub-functions of self-regulation that may enhance confidence.

Previous studies have found that elite athletes tend to have better self-regulation abilities compared to non-elite athletes (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2001; Anshel & Porter, 1996). This is not surprising given that elites use psychological skills more effectively (Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). As a result, the confidence derived from these skills may differ, making competitive level an important variable in this study. We will investigate the impact of goal-setting, conceptualized as a self-regulatory behavior, on anxiety levels. This study builds upon the work of Hanton et al.

In a 2004 survey, goal-setting was suggested as a potential scheme to enhance confidence and indirectly affect anxiety levels. The survey aimed to determine which aspects of self-regulation are used to promote confidence and potentially mediate competitive anxiety. The hypothesis proposed that goal-setting would be the strongest predictor of

confidence, which would then mediate the relationship between goal-setting behaviors and anxiety levels. It was also expected that confidence would have a positive effect on facilitative anxiety levels. The survey cited several references including Anshel and Porter's study on self-regulatory features of competitive swimmers and Bandura's theories on self-efficacy and social cognitive theory of self-regulation.

Mentions:
1. Anshel, M.H. & Porter, A. (1996). Self-regulatory features of competitive swimmers as a function of skill level and gender. Journal of Sport and Behaviour, 19, 91-110.

Bacillus:
1. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a consolidative theory of personality change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
2. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
3. Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287.
4. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

  • Bandura, A.

, ; A ; Cervone, D. (1986). Differential battle of self-reactive influences in cognitive motive. Organizational behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 92-113

  • Behncke, L. (2002). Self-regulation: A brief reappraisal. Athletic Insight, 14 (1). Retrieved April 2010, from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.athleticinsight.com/Vol4Iss1/SelfRegulation.htm
  • Borkovec, T.D.
  • , Metzger, R.L. , ; A ; Pruzinsk, T. (1986) . Anxiety, concern and the ego. In: L.M.

    The text includes a citation of a book and an article. The citation of the book is: Hartman and K.R. Blankenstein, Editors, "Percept of ego in emotional upset and psychotherapeutics", Plenum, New York. The citation of the article is: Burton, D.A ( 1989 ) . "Winning isn't everything: Analyzing the impact of performance goals on collegiate swimmers' perceptions and performance", The Sport Psychologist, 3, 105-132.

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